Lesson 3 Traditions of Political Theory: Liberal, Marxist, Anarchist, and Conservative
The idea of political tradition is not static, it could mean
anything from believing in a set of values - such as voting for one political
party to a set of beliefs such as freedom of speech and expression. The major
tenant of a political tradition however is represented by consistency although
that might not always be the case. For example, the proponents of negative
liberty believe that the state is inherently “evil” whereas proponents of
positive liberty associate the state with a proactively positive role of the
state.
Liberal Tradition
The liberal tradition of Political Science is derived from
the Latin word liber which refers to a class of free people. The idea of
Liberty represents the freedom of an individual which is consistent with the
freedom of the society the individual inhabits. Liberalism works on the premise
of constitutionalism and consent and the state under liberal tradition works
under the principle of Laissez-Faire i.e leave the man alone. The pillar of
liberalism is to protect the citizen from the tyranny of the government.
Liberalism as a political alternative emerged after the breakdown of Feudalism
in Western Europe. The idea of liberty and freedom, to break away from the
hierarchical feudal division of power created radical shifts across Europe. The
English civil war in the seventeenth century, French Revolution in 1789, and
the American Revolution in 1776. All three of them were based on questioning
the divine rights of monarchical powers which derived their legitimacy from an
unelected aristocracy.
The development of Liberalism as a political tradition was
also a result of industrialization happening in 19th century Europe.
Industrialization offered economic mobility to a certain section of society
that was previously not in a position to assert its rights. Liberalism thus
opened doors for a “rising middle class” that was previously out of the
decision-making processes. The context of liberal tradition as mention is
eighteenth and nineteenth-century Europe.
The core tenants of the liberal traditions can be summed
up as
Individualism
The liberal tradition puts the individual as the central
unit of analysis, the individual is both, an entity with unique attributes and
inner qualities specific to themselves and at the same level as other
individuals. The idea that an individual should have the full autonomy to
develop their potential to the maximum extent possible is an article of faith
of liberal tradition. Special reference needs to be made to two thinkers here.
Freedom
The idea of freedom is the unifying force of the entire
liberal ideology. Human existence is not fulfilled unless nourished by the idea
of liberty. Freedom is the means to the ends of individuals. However, the
liberal tradition does not endorse liberty which infringes the liberty of others
in the social order. John Stuart Mill terms this as a harm principle where the
liberty of one person does not harm the liberty of anyone else. He divides
every action as “self-regarding” and “other-regarding”. Self-regarding action
allows the individual to enjoy absolute freedom and the other regarding which
can restrict the freedom of others or do them damage.
Reason
The liberal tradition gains its legitimacy from the idea of
reason. Individuals are free or are at liberty because they are capable of
thinking rationally and deciding on and pursuing their best interests. Liberals
are strongly biased against the values of paternalism which is authority
exercised from above and is modelled on the relationship between father and
child. The second key of the reason is the idea of progress and advancement,
the power of reason gives human beings the capacity to transform their lives
and fashion their destinies. The third pillar for the case of the reason is
Knowledge, it is only through knowledge that an individual can be free from
superstition and prejudice.
Justice
Justice in a more general sense if giving an individual what
they are due i.e what is entitled to them. The liberal idea of justice on the
other hand represents different types of equality. The tenets of equality for
liberals are based on the idea that individuals have equal moral worth. The
second foundational principle is the idea of equal citizenship i.e each citizen
is entitled to rights and liberties extended to the next citizen. Factors such
as class, caste, gender, race, colour. Liberalism in this sense is “difference
blind”. The idea of liberty enforces the principle of legality in the
decision-making and electoral process where every citizen gets a vote and that
vote has one value.
Toleration
A long with the ideas of justice, individualism, and
freedom; is vital of toleration. Toleration is built on the fact that
individuals may differ in endowments, opinions, gender, caste, religious
inclinations sexualities, etc but they must be free to pursue their for liberal
tradition stand. John Locke for example defended an individual right to pursue
his or her religion without the interference of the state.
The Liberal State
The values of liberal tradition cannot be realized on their
own, they require a mechanism and a political social order to be implemented.
Here the idea of a liberal state creeps in, Liberals staunchly believe that
both law and governance are necessary to prevent individuals from exploiting
each other. The liberty of one person must not become a license to abuse
another. Freedom must be therefore be exercised within the means of law.
The liberal state follows the idea of constitutionalism
where the government derives its power and legitimacy from an agreed-upon set
of laws and principles that are consensually agreed upon by the citizens. This
prevents any potential tyranny by the government which also has to work within
the constraints of a constitution. Another requiem of the liberal state is the
idea of a liberal democracy which is based on the idea that competing interests
of the society can be represented via the idea of political equality where each
individual has a stake in the collective decision-making power.
The schools of the liberal tradition
Classical
The classical tradition comes into being during the
transition of feudalism to capitalism predominantly in the United Kingdom and
the United States of America and Classical Liberal tradition subscribes to
certain ideas which differentiate it from Modern Liberalism: ideas of
egotistical individualism i.e individuals are self-interested. The second
concept is negative liberty, in which the individual is free of all
restrictions; the third concept is that the state is a "necessary
evil," as Thomas Paine put it, in that it is required to provide
conditions for orderly existence but is evil in that it imposes a collective
will on individuals.
According to Stanford Encyclopaedia Of Philosophy Tenant
of Classical liberalism are:
Rights: For Thomas Jefferson and John Locke Natural
rights are endowed on human beings by God and thus cannot be violated by
anyone. Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism as a doctrine was developed by Jermy
Bantam and J.S Mill. Bentham advocated a utilitarian social order which was
based on “the greatest happiness of the greatest masses” here the values of
pain and pleasure for Bentham were understood in the quantitative sense where
each action had an equal worth. Mill modifies this idea where he deemed that
every action differs qualitatively where it brings different degrees of pain
and pleasure. Certain acts hold more pleasure or pain than others.
Economic Liberalism: Adam Smith and David Ricardo
endorsed the idea of freedom of the market which was invariably linked to the
freedom of individuals who are making voluntary economic association with each
other. The forces of demand and supply are adequate to regulate these
associations.
Social Darwinism: The idea of Social Darwinism is
derivative of the theory proposed by Darwin in the origin of species by Darwin
of the doctrine of the survival of the fittest. Here the individual will only
survive based on his one merit and hard work. Neoliberalism or Neoclassical
Liberalism: The idea of neoclassical liberalism was “counter-revolution” which
was to halt or reverse the trend towards big government and state intervention.
The idea of the market was supreme to the government and must be free from any
political control.
Modern Liberalism
The idea of modern liberalism developed in the 20th century
in the later stages of industrialization to address the spread of slums,
poverty, ignorance, and disease. The idea of unrestricted freedom of
individuals and a free market could not translate into an equally just society.
Modern Liberalism was based on certain values which differed from the classical
ones: The idea of Individuality- According to J.S Mill liberty did not just
mean the absence of constraints but also a positive and constructive force
where individuals take control of their destiny and achieve self-realization.
Social Liberalism was sought by the Modern Liberals where
the minimal state was to be replaced by a welfare state which takes the
responsibility for the social welfare of its citizens discharged through a
range of social security, health education, and other services. The final
tenant of modern liberalism is the idea of economic management. The modern
liberals discarded the idea of Lassies Faire and instead replaced it with the
Keynesian doctrine which is named after John Maynard Keynes who in his The
General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (Keynes,1936) argued that
government could manage their economies by influencing the levels of aggregate
demand.
Marxist Tradition
Marxism as a school of political thought is a compilation or
is inspired by the ideas developed by Karl Marx and to some extent Fredrich
Engles in the 19th Century. Marxism can be largely divided into three
disciplinary fields, an economic and political program, a theory of history,
and philosophical anthropology.
Historical Materialism
Marx here established the idea of a historic bloc of society
where the society is based on an economic base that dictates all social
relationships in the society. It is the economic position according to Marx
which determines one socio-political position in society. If the above
paragraph is understood emphasizes toit establishes two major points of Marxian
philosophy:
1. The basic structure of a society is its economic
structure which consists of (a) the “material forces of production,” that is,
the labour and means of production, and (b) the larger “production relations,”
which refers to the social and political institutions that control production
and distribution.
2. A superstructure arises from this economic base,
consisting of legal and political "forms of social consciousness"
that correspond to the economic foundation. One's political and social
ideology, consciousness, and location are all determined by one's economic
base, which Marx refers to as a class. The economic foundation of social order
lies at the heart of Marx's whole school of thinking.
The idea of class thus becomes the referent unit of Marxian
analysis where Marx states that “The history of all existing society is the
history of class struggle”. History for Marx goes in a dialectical form where
there is a Thesis, Synthesis, and Antithesis. The progression is enabled by the
struggle between the two classes which gives rise to a new structure of society
that is based on the resulting economic order. The class struggle, therefore,
is expressed in a dialectical nature. Two classes are opposed to each other
through various points in history: The owners of the means of production which
is the bourgeoisie and the workers which are the proletariats. Historical
materialism explains the progressive nature of the history of class struggle.
Primitive communism, in the hunting-gathering stages there was no private
property hence there were no classes. Ancient history had a class of slave
owners who were the oppressing class and slaves who were the oppressed class.
Alienation
Alienation comes from the Latin work Alienare which means to
remove or take away. For Karl Marx, it is a social or political process. He
uses the term entfremdung which translates into estrangement which is separation
or detachment from things to which they are naturally tied to. Entfremdung
represents the situation of separation from social affairs and estrangement of
their human nature i.e species essence as a result of living in a class-based,
class-conscious stratified society.
Workers in a capitalist order are compelled to sell their
labor to the capitalist and lose control over it and their labor becomes simply
a means to the end of capitalists. They also have no control over the product
of their labor. Their labor itself which is their life activity does not belong
to them. They get estranged from their labor and the product of their labor.
Henced the workers become alienated from their own self and own nature and also
alienated from other human beings as well as their work. Alienation for Marx is
of four types:
1. Objectification is the alienation of a worker from the
product of his or her own labor
2. Self-Alienation is the alienation of a worker from his or
her own self and activity where the labor is simply producing for the ends of a
capitalist profit. The worker is merely a clog in the capitalist machine.
Labour does not add value to his being but is simply a means to survive and
thus is alienated from himself or herself
3. Species-Alienation Man according to Marx is not an
atomistic individual but has an inner life or spiritual being which is based on
previous history. According to Marx, it is labor that distinguishes man from
other lower animals. Man can only produce when he is free and the production
conforms with the ordains of nature. A condition which is not allowed by
capitalism hence man is alienated from his species being
4. Alienation from
other people - If a person is alienated from his or her species being, they
would be alienated from their fellow beings.
5.B.A Political Science Hons. History Lesson 4th Important Notes Part 2
State and Revolution in Marxist Tradition
Apart from liberal state theory, Marxist state theory is
arguably the most well-known. Marxist ideology not only questions the
fundamental conceptions of the liberal state but also emphasizes that it
enslaves the majority of men in society to organizational achieve its goals and
that it must be abolished or crushed for common men to be free.
They've classified society's evolution into four categories:
ancient communist society, slave society, feudal society, and industrial
society. There was no state in the original communist society since private
property did not exist. The private property system served as a possible
catalyst for the emergence of the state. Where the anti-state came to exist as
a defence to private property. For Marxist State will wither away with a
communist revolution. People will be able to move to a radical transformation
of their position through revolution after they have become conscious of their
loss, alienation, as a universal inhuman predicament. This revolution will pave
the way for the return of liberty and the foundation of communism.
Anarchism
The word Anarchy comes from the Greek word Anarkhos which
means “without rule”. It was first used in a negative sense during the French
Revolution to discredit the protesters.
Anarchism as a political tradition has been unusual in the
sense that its philosophy has not succeeded in winning power at least national
level.
Core Themes: Against the State
Anarchists’ central belief is the opposition to the state or
any form of government and law. Anarchists endorse the idea of a stateless
society in which free individuals manage their affairs by voluntary agreement
without compulsion and coercion. Anarchism as a doctrine is wanting on two
accounts: the first is the assumption that Moral assertion is stronger in
anarchism than analysis and explanation. Anarchism focuses more on the fact
that human beings are morally good and are drawn to freedom and autonomy, than
on analysing how to challenge the system of state oppression.
Anti-Statism
Sebastien Faure in
his treatise Encyclopaedia anarchist which consists of four-volume defined
anarchism as ‘the negation of the principle of Authority’. Authority according
to anarchists is opposed to absolute freedom and unrestrained political
equality. Authority according to anarchists gives one person the right to
influence the behaviour of others, enslaves, oppresses, and limits human life.
The basis of this critique lies in how anarchists view human
nature. They believe the almost utopic human nature can be easily influenced by
or corrupted by political power or economic inequality. As a result, a state
that is the repository of sovereign, obligatory, and coercive authority is
nothing short of a concentrated form of evil.
Utopianism
Unlike the social
contract theorists which believe that man in the state of nature is short nasty
and brutish, anarchists believe in the natural goodness, or at least potential
goodness, of humankind. From the perspective of anarchist’s state is not
required to create a harmonious social order, it will arise spontaneously and
naturally.
Anti-Clericalism
Anti-clericalism for anarchists is stemmed from a similar
distaste for authority that they show towards the state. Religion itself has
been seen as a source of authority in general. The idea of God required
complete submission to a higher authority. This submission must be
unconditional and unquestioned. Religion does not leave any space for free will
or individual autonomy and thus anarchists find themselves at odds with
religion.
Economic Freedom
Besides the anti-state state attitude, Anarchists hope to
transform the social and economic system. Bakunin states “Political power and
wealth are inseparable”. When anarchism initially developed as a political camp
it grounded itself in the workers’ movement which was driven by socialist
principles. However, for anarchists, the ruling class was not understood in
simply economic terms. It was anyone who had access to wealth, power, and
privilege in society.
Roads to Anarchy
Revolutionary non-violence
The 19th century saw
a period where anarchist leadership tried to provoke the masses for
insurrection and revolt. Michael Bakunin for example led to a constitutional
brotherhood, the Alliance for Social Democracy in anarchist risings of France
and Italy. But more or less Anarchist uprisings failed to gather long-term
momentum since they support spontaneous action rather than the careful
organization.
Direct Action
Short of a revolutionary assault on existing society
anarchists have employed tactics of direct action. Direct action may change
from passive resistance to terrorism. Anarcho-Syndicalists for example refuse
to engage in electoral politics instead exert pressure on employers by
boycotting their products, sabotaging machinery, and organizing strike action.
From anarchists’ point of view, direct action has two advantages. The first is
that it is uncontaminated by the process of government and machinery of the
state.
Non-Violence
Anarchists like Godwin and Proudhon regard violence
abhorrent principle. These latter anarchists have often been attracted to the
principles of nonviolence and pacifism developed by the Russian novelist Leo
Tolstoy and Mahatma Gandhi. The principle of nonviolence has appealed to
anarchists for two reasons: First, it reflects a respect for human beings as
moral and autonomous creatures. As a political approach, nonviolence has proven
appealing. Mahatma Gandhi emancipated India with the use of Satyagraha based on
principles of truth and non-violence.
Conservative Tradition
Conservatism as a term with political connotation was first
used in the United States of America to imply a pessimistic state of affairs.
The group of people who were opposed to the French Revolution was also deemed
to be conservatives. In the United Kingdom “Conservatives” came to be known as
“Tory” which became one of the two political parties in the UK.
The problem with understanding conservatism is first it is
easier to understand what they oppose. A second problem is the fact that
defining conservatism runs at the risk of irritating conservatives themselves.
They prefer to think of conservatism as a state of mind rather than a
well-defined ideology. To understand what conservatism is it the following
tenets of conservatism are required to be understood:
Core tenants of Conservatism
Tradition
The major pillar of conservative tradition is its defence of
tradition which could be religious faith or social order or even a form of
authority such as monarchical tradition. There are also instances when all
three snowballs into one as was the medieval English society. Edmund Burke
defined a social order based on all three- in terms of religion he stated that
society was shaped by “the law of our creator”. Similarly, a society for Burke
is a partnership between “those who are living, those who are dead and those
who are to be born”. A tradition for conservatives is the repository of the
wisdom of the past.
Human Imperfection
Conservatives vouch for the notion that human beings are
both imperfect and unpredictable. Human beings according to conservatives are
firstly psychologically limited and dependent creatures who fear instability
and isolation. They are drawn to what is “known”. They desire security which
compels them to go for a social order which ensures stability in an
unpredictable world. They subscribe to the Hobbesian view of human nature which
is inherently selfish and greedy.
Organic society
As explained in the previous section human beings are
security-seeking creatures, dependent on each other. According to anarchists,
this makes them incapable of living without a society. The social order exists
to nurture the individual. Society is what gives human life meaning. Freedom
for anarchists cannot be understood in negative terms rather freedom is a
willing acceptance of social obligation and ties by individuals who recognize
their values. Freedom for conservatives is thus doing one’s duty Conservatives
subscribe to the belief of organicism which is that society is like an organism
or a living entity. With a society like an organism, the whole is more than the
collection of parts.
Hierarchy and authority
Conservatives have long claimed that hierarchy and
inequality are unavoidable aspects of every society. This implies that they
believe that achieving real social equality, such as in terms of position,
money, or power, is an unattainable goal. There is some overlap between
Conservatism and Liberalism in this regard. While Liberals see inequality as a
compromise that must be accepted to accommodate differences in likes or talents
among people, Conservatives see it as something deeper that is essential to
society's functioning - in other words, something that should be understood
positively.
Property
Property is a notion that conservatives place a high value
on. They think that having private property or assets offers several
advantages. Conservatives, like many Liberals, accept the notion that property
ownership is a manifestation of merit; that is, a person's ability to build a
significant amount of property or money is a result of his desire to work hard
throughout his life and put his abilities to good use. Many Conservatives, on
the other hand, maintain that property ownership has broader social and
psychological benefits.
Types of Conservatism
Authoritarian Conservatism
Authoritarian conservatism comes from the tradition which
has favoured authoritarian rule, especially in Europe. Joseph De Maistre was
one of the staunchest defenders of the French monarchy and the toughest critic
of the French revolution. In his text the Du Pape endorsed the idea that above
the earthly rule there exists a higher spiritual authority of the Pope.
Paternalistic Conservatism
Paternalistic conservatism can be traced back to the
Anglo-American tradition inspired by Edmund Burke who espoused that if the
change is natural and inevitable then it must not be resisted. The
characteristic of this style of conservatism is cautious, modest and pragmatic.
The values of conservatism can only be preserved under practical circumstances.
Christian Democracy
After World War II many Christan democratic parties adopted
interventionist policies. The most significant of these parties were the
Christian Democratic Union in West Germany and Christian Democratic Party in
Italy. After the war, many conservatives abandoned their authoritarian stands
and adopted the paternalistic social traditions of Catholicism. Catholic theory
focuses on social groups rather than individuals and social harmony and balance
rather than competition.
Libertarian conservatism
Libertarian conservatism, sometimes known as conservative libertarianism,
is a political theory that blends conservatism with libertarianism, with the
libertarian side of conservatism representing the conservative wing and vice
versa. Libertarian conservatism promotes maximum economic liberty and little
government control of social life, similar to laissez-faire classical
liberalism, but with a belief in a more socially conservative worldview
emphasizing authority, morality, and responsibility.
New Right
Theorists believe that the free market is effective in achieving
economic and political liberty. The works of Hayek and the American economist
Milton Friedman contain the core concepts of the new right ideology. The new
right is 'new,' but not in the sense that their ideas have never been heard
before. Indeed, they are heavily influenced by Adam Smith and closely resemble
the concerns of nineteenth-century liberal philosophy. When compared to the
‘old right’s preoccupations with tradition, moderation, and support for the post-war
political consensus, they can only be described as ‘new’.
Important Question
How does the positive conception of liberty differs
from the negative conception of liberty?
What are the different stages of class struggle
according to Marx?
What is the criticism of anarchist tradition? How do anarchists
propose to reach their goals?
What are the different schools/branches of
conservatism?
Differentiate between the Liberal and Marxist ideas of
the state.
Read More
1.B.A Political Science 1st Lesson Important Notes
2. B.A Political Science 2nd Lesson Important Notes
0 Comments
If you any doubts, Please let me know