Lesson 2 Approaches to Political Theory: Normative, Historical and Empirical Important Notes

Lesson 2 Approaches to Political Theory: Normative, Historical and Empirical

 

One of the oldest disciplines of the world is Political science. Its roots can be traced back to ancient Greece where it emerged and grew as a branch of philosophy. Aristotle is considered as the father of political science. He inferred political science as a ‘master science’. It indicates the inter-disciplinary nature of the discipline and it is a science to be learned by the masters. For him masters were those who were involved in rational decision making in the state. If a thorough understand of the evolution of the discipline is made, it could be seen that it was dominated by philosophy in ancient times. It was dwarfed by orthodoxy, religion/scriptures and superstitions in medieval times. It was Machiavelli who framed his statecraft whereby he gave the autonomy of politics and detached it from ethics and religion, and thereby the autonomous status of the discipline was recognized.

 

Understanding the Terms: Political Science, Political Philosophy and Political Theory

 

Political Science is founded upon empiricism. Political Science claims to describe, analyse and explain political establishments, institutions and the government in an impartial, value free manner. In the end of World War II, philosophy, ideas and value judgements dominated, it was only in the 1950s and 60s, most strongly in the USA, a newer form of political analysis emerged which largely drew upon behaviourism.

 

Political theory and political philosophy may show similarity, but a differences can easily be identified. It is one of the core disciplines of political science. Lately, it has gained independent recognition as an academic subject. Previously, those who carried out investigations in this domain referred to themselves as philosophers or scientists. Political theory is the most accurate term, to use when referring to the intellectual tradition that recognises the capacity of seeing beyond immediate practical concerns and ‘watching’ man’s societal life critically. Political theory was full-fledged political science, because science could not exist without the theory. As a result, political theory can be utilised interchangeably with political science in a valid and accurate manner.

 

Political Science has attempted to give credible generalizations and rules of politics and political behaviour. Political theory deals with the political phenomenon, processes, institutions and on tangible political behaviour by subjecting it to philosophical or ethical benchmark. It deals with the query of the best political order, which is only a miniscule part of a greater question; namely, the ‘ideal form of life that a human being ought to lead within a larger community’.

Political philosophy can be understood as the philosophical reflection on means and ways we can arrange our political institutions and social practices. Political Philosophy are the proposed concept by Philosophers around which the individuals frame the basic principles of their life.

 

According to political scientists guided by empiricism, the difference between political philosophy and political theory consist of–

 

· Political theory is a determinant, self-contained power. In the state philosophy, the theory has no independent existence.

· even though if, theories arise in political philosophy, they are not guided by science or information. The political theory relies entirely on the information which is proved through experimentations.

· The biggest difference between the two is that, political philosophy relies upon the customs, traditions, and values. Hence assertions are guided by partisanship, in the absence of objectivity. Political theory is value-neutral, rational and objective in nature.

 · While political theory as embedded in philosophy plays a beneficial role, this theory is confined to the established beliefs in political philosophy. Mystery and delusion have no place in political theory.

· The fundamental focus of political philosophy is ‘philosophy’, politics is endowed with its unique position in political theory.

 · The above detailed analysis helps us differentiate between political philosophy and political theory on three grounds.

 

Approaches in Political Theory

 

In this chapter we will be dealing with three approaches Normative, Historical and Empirical.

 

Normative Approach

The normative approach to political theory forms the basis of moral philosophy in political science. It comes from the idea that political life must be guided by the principle of what “ought to be” not “what is”. Theory-making in the normative approach is thus guided by the principles based on abstract moral reasoning and how they impact policies and institutions. Isaiah Berlin understands Normative political theory as “the discovery, or application, of moral notions in the sphere of political relations”. Normative political belief is based on the belief that human agents exercise meaningful moral choices. The roots of normative political theory can be traced to Ancient Greece in the west and the west from the Confucian and Hindu philosophy.

 

Normative political theory illustrates the relationship between individuals and institutions, particularly those social institutions which exercise public power. It acts as a litmus test for the legitimacy of existing political institutions and justifies the alternative arrangements if required.

 

Moral intuitions

 Any conclusion to an argument is measured by normative political theorists against their moral intuitions. Any argument must be in sync with substantive moral reasoning. Normative political theorists differ in how much relative importance is given to each of these methods in comparison with each other.

The major positions in normative political theory

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is the brainchild of 19th-century British social reformer Jeremy Bentham. Bentham claimed that human beings seek to maximize pleasure and minimize their pain. The correct moral choice is therefore which results in the greatest happiness of the greatest number in the society. It is a quantified approach based on the principle of utility. Any public policy must strive for a utility which is the maximum possible happiness with minimum possible pain.

 

Deontological Liberalism

 In the 1970s a debate was raised against teleological ethics, teleological ethics are basically “moralities that judge the worth of human conduct according to whether it fulfils a particular purpose or realizes a particular end or telos”. This was problematic since a. Teleological approach such as utilitarianism did not account for individual pluralism in defining happiness and pain b. It prioritizes ends over means.

 

Communitarianism

The starting point of communitarianism is the critique of the individual self. Michael Sandel believes that the liberal ideals for an individual do not account for claims and obligations which arose from the personal and social ties of an individual. Human beings for communitarianism are not atomistic elements rather their destiny is tied up with the social order that they are a part of. They will never seek out an individualist existence unless they are alienated or shunned from society. Whatever rights and obligation an individual have is derived from the community or society he or she is part of. In a community, there is no concept of an individual end.

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Normative theory Critiques

Logical positivism

Ludwig Wittgenstein in his text Tractates Logico-Philosophical formed the basis of logical positivism. For Wittgenstein what makes the language meaning or the capacity to communicate is their names. They have external objects as their meaning. Similarly, the proposition with external meanings is true. True propositions can only be derived from material objects or direct sense experience. If that is the case then all the assumptions of normative theory get into serious trouble.

 

Relativism

Moral relativists do not believe in the notion of absolute morality, they argue that all morality is relative hence there cannot be an inherently good value. The values are always about each other and if that is the case then there cannot be truly any normative value. Communitarians might argue that in a community there might be values that are inherently good or desirable while some values or notions must be avoided at all costs. What makes this possible is the common language which communicates such values in any particular social order.

Determinism

There is a school of thought which believes that individuals are incapable of being autonomous agents which is a precondition of moral choosing. They are always constrained, forced, or even coerced into making decisions or claims in society. There are multiple forms of determinism, some argue that individuals are constrained by hidden structures or historical processes, economic life. Some determinists believe individuals to be constrained by national traditions or even supernatural. Some determinists believe that we are determined by our subconscious or genetic inheritance.

 

Historical Approach

The historical approach in politics can have two engagements: that the present laws which dictate politics arrive from an analysis of historical events for example the historical materialism process theorized by Marx and Hegel. Second is an attempt the understand political thought through history, an example for this would be George Sabine’s “A history of political thought”. (Sabine G.H et al 1973) The historical political theory stands for taking historical events into account. The historical approach also helps in setting up a chronological of political events.

 

The best illustration of the historical approach is the work of George H. Sabine who gave a very practical definition of political science. (Sabine et. al,1973) He proposed that political science needs to be included in every subject which is discussed by prominent political philosophers such as Aristotle, Rousseau, or Plato. In their writings, we could find solutions to the problems these philosophers have posed about the reality or validity of political beliefs. Throughout history, political philosophers have pondered issues such as the meaning of freedom, why men obey the government, the extent of government activities, and the meaning of equality.

 

Significant changes occurred throughout each of these periods in Europe's social and intellectual history. As Sabine would put it, great political ideas are “hidden” in the “interstices of political and social crises.” They are generated not by crises in and of themselves, but by the reaction intellectuals have to them. To fully appreciate political theory, it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the period, region, and circumstances in which it arose.

 

The political philosopher may not actively engage in his day's politics, but he is influenced by it, and he attempts fiercely to influence it in his own time. According to Sabine, political theories “have a dual purpose” in that they influence ideas that become causes and serve as causal events in historical settings while also belonging to the abstract domain of thought. It's also crucial to understand if a political ideology is accurate or incorrect, sound or ludicrous, trustworthy or untrustworthy. This brings up the question of values. As a result, we must make every effort to include factual, causal, and valuational elements into our understanding of political theory.

 

Historical Approach: An analysis

“History in the light of the best modern practice is to be sharply distinguished from the antiquarianism or the collection of facts for their own sake and should be defined rather as the study of problems or causes, the interpretation of phenomena”. The historian's level of attention, of course, cannot be foreseen ahead of time. It is determined by the individual as much as the facts. However, it is necessary to use caution. Vigilance is required since history contains misleading information. Accurately recording facts and events are not always feasible. This isn't a fabricated charge.

 

Alan Ball states “past evidence does leave–alarming gaps, and political history is often simply a record of great men and great events, rather than a comprehensive account of total political activity.” (Ball et al, 2000) Few historians give historical events and facts a broad and liberal interpretation. They have a warped vision of reality due to their narrow perspective. Political science could not have a more strong and secure foundation.

Sir Ivor Jennings is a well-known British constitutional specialist, and his interpretations of several aspects of the British Constitution are still considered trustworthy. His perspective on history is singular. His research was aided by the depth of his analysis, the breadth of his vision, and the objectivity with which he treated his subjects, and students of politics still remember him. (Jennings I, 1959) Based on historical documents, Jennings has compiled a detailed description of the British Prime Minister, Parliament, and other government ministries. Robert Mackenzie (Mackenzie, R.T, 1955) researched the party system, while Mackintosh investigated the workings of England's cabinet system.

 

Empirical Approach or Empiricism

 

The history of empirical approach can be traced back to Aristotle (384-22 BCE) who attempted to classify constitutions and to Machiavelli (1469-1527 CE) who gave a realistic account of statecraft in The Prince. Even John Rawls (1921-2002) also used empirical method for theorizing at his principles of justice. In many ways such writings form the fundamental basis of what we today read as comparative government and politics, and gave rise to a principally institutional approach to the subject. Empirical approach is the doctrine which believes that all the hypothesis and theories should be tested by a practical process of observation and experiment. This approach out rightly rejects theories that make value judgements as having the status of knowledge.

 

Thus, empirical approach forms the basis for the later on rise of other pragmatic approaches like positivism and behaviourism. Under the influence of positivism, political theorists marched in the lights of gaining scientific understanding about the political processes based on principles that could be objectively confirmed and proven. As a result, they strove to develop a natural science of society, and philosophy was reduced to a simple branch of science in the process. Such a view of theory also presented the function of the theorist as that of a detached spectator, devoid of any loyalties and ideals. The golden years of this approach were in the early twentieth century, whereby it reached greater heights, and has subsequently been come under attack. Stringent empiricism has been criticized on the ground that it tends to produce a simplistic model of science that has been badly dented by the advances in Philosophy of Science. The empirical approach has significantly enhanced our knowledge of the theoretical foundations of political science, is now being utilized for better understanding of classical questions, including those which are eventually value judgements. Science relies on evidence, similarly Political Science also bank on empirical and logical statements. It is maintained that value-free accurate observation and reasoning by different persons would lead to similar conclusion; hence empirical and logical evidences may be verified.

 

Important Questions

1.Distinguish between Political Theory, Political Philosophy and Political Science

2.Write a short note on the contemporary approaches to Political Theory

3.Site the differences between Normative and Empirical Approaches.

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