Lesson 2 Approaches to Political Theory: Normative, Historical and Empirical
One of the oldest disciplines of the world is Political
science. Its roots can be traced back to ancient Greece where it emerged and
grew as a branch of philosophy. Aristotle is considered as the father of
political science. He inferred political science as a ‘master science’. It
indicates the inter-disciplinary nature of the discipline and it is a science
to be learned by the masters. For him masters were those who were involved in
rational decision making in the state. If a thorough understand of the
evolution of the discipline is made, it could be seen that it was dominated by
philosophy in ancient times. It was dwarfed by orthodoxy, religion/scriptures
and superstitions in medieval times. It was Machiavelli who framed his
statecraft whereby he gave the autonomy of politics and detached it from ethics
and religion, and thereby the autonomous status of the discipline was
recognized.
Understanding the Terms:
Political Science, Political Philosophy and Political Theory
Political Science is founded upon empiricism. Political
Science claims to describe, analyse and explain political establishments,
institutions and the government in an impartial, value free manner. In the end
of World War II, philosophy, ideas and value judgements dominated, it was only
in the 1950s and 60s, most strongly in the USA, a newer form of political
analysis emerged which largely drew upon behaviourism.
Political theory and political philosophy may show similarity,
but a differences can easily be identified. It is one of the core disciplines
of political science. Lately, it has gained independent recognition as an
academic subject. Previously, those who carried out investigations in this
domain referred to themselves as philosophers or scientists. Political theory
is the most accurate term, to use when referring to the intellectual tradition
that recognises the capacity of seeing beyond immediate practical concerns and
‘watching’ man’s societal life critically. Political theory was full-fledged
political science, because science could not exist without the theory. As a result,
political theory can be utilised interchangeably with political science in a
valid and accurate manner.
Political Science has attempted to give credible
generalizations and rules of politics and political behaviour. Political theory
deals with the political phenomenon, processes, institutions and on tangible
political behaviour by subjecting it to philosophical or ethical benchmark. It
deals with the query of the best political order, which is only a miniscule
part of a greater question; namely, the ‘ideal form of life that a human being
ought to lead within a larger community’.
Political philosophy can be understood as the philosophical
reflection on means and ways we can arrange our political institutions and
social practices. Political Philosophy are the proposed concept by Philosophers
around which the individuals frame the basic principles of their life.
According to political scientists
guided by empiricism, the difference between political philosophy and political
theory consist of–
·
Political theory is a determinant, self-contained power. In the state
philosophy, the theory has no independent existence.
· even
though if, theories arise in political philosophy, they are not guided by
science or information. The political theory relies entirely on the information
which is proved through experimentations.
· The
biggest difference between the two is that, political philosophy relies upon
the customs, traditions, and values. Hence assertions are guided by
partisanship, in the absence of objectivity. Political theory is value-neutral,
rational and objective in nature.
· While political theory as
embedded in philosophy plays a beneficial role, this theory is confined to the
established beliefs in political philosophy. Mystery and delusion have no place
in political theory.
· The
fundamental focus of political philosophy is ‘philosophy’, politics is endowed
with its unique position in political theory.
· The above detailed
analysis helps us differentiate between political philosophy and political
theory on three grounds.
Approaches in Political Theory
In this chapter we will be dealing with three approaches
Normative, Historical and Empirical.
Normative Approach
The normative approach to political theory forms the basis
of moral philosophy in political science. It comes from the idea that political
life must be guided by the principle of what “ought to be” not “what is”.
Theory-making in the normative approach is thus guided by the principles based
on abstract moral reasoning and how they impact policies and institutions.
Isaiah Berlin understands Normative political theory as “the discovery, or
application, of moral notions in the sphere of political relations”. Normative
political belief is based on the belief that human agents exercise meaningful
moral choices. The roots of normative political theory can be traced to Ancient
Greece in the west and the west from the Confucian and Hindu philosophy.
Normative political theory illustrates the relationship
between individuals and institutions, particularly those social institutions
which exercise public power. It acts as a litmus test for the legitimacy of
existing political institutions and justifies the alternative arrangements if
required.
Moral intuitions
Any conclusion to an
argument is measured by normative political theorists against their moral
intuitions. Any argument must be in sync with substantive moral reasoning.
Normative political theorists differ in how much relative importance is given
to each of these methods in comparison with each other.
The major positions in normative political theory
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is the brainchild of 19th-century British
social reformer Jeremy Bentham. Bentham claimed that human beings seek to
maximize pleasure and minimize their pain. The correct moral choice is
therefore which results in the greatest happiness of the greatest number in the
society. It is a quantified approach based on the principle of utility. Any
public policy must strive for a utility which is the maximum possible happiness
with minimum possible pain.
Deontological Liberalism
In the 1970s a debate
was raised against teleological ethics, teleological ethics are basically
“moralities that judge the worth of human conduct according to whether it fulfils
a particular purpose or realizes a particular end or telos”. This was problematic
since a. Teleological approach such as utilitarianism did not account for
individual pluralism in defining happiness and pain b. It prioritizes ends over
means.
Communitarianism
The starting point of communitarianism is the critique of
the individual self. Michael Sandel believes that the liberal ideals for an
individual do not account for claims and obligations which arose from the
personal and social ties of an individual. Human beings for communitarianism
are not atomistic elements rather their destiny is tied up with the social
order that they are a part of. They will never seek out an individualist
existence unless they are alienated or shunned from society. Whatever rights
and obligation an individual have is derived from the community or society he
or she is part of. In a community, there is no concept of an individual end.
5.B.A Political Science Hons. History Lesson 4th Important Notes Part 2
Normative theory Critiques
Logical positivism
Ludwig Wittgenstein in his text Tractates
Logico-Philosophical formed the basis of logical positivism. For Wittgenstein
what makes the language meaning or the capacity to communicate is their names.
They have external objects as their meaning. Similarly, the proposition with
external meanings is true. True propositions can only be derived from material
objects or direct sense experience. If that is the case then all the
assumptions of normative theory get into serious trouble.
Relativism
Moral relativists do not believe in the notion of absolute
morality, they argue that all morality is relative hence there cannot be an
inherently good value. The values are always about each other and if that is
the case then there cannot be truly any normative value. Communitarians might
argue that in a community there might be values that are inherently good or
desirable while some values or notions must be avoided at all costs. What makes
this possible is the common language which communicates such values in any
particular social order.
Determinism
There is a school of thought which believes that individuals
are incapable of being autonomous agents which is a precondition of moral
choosing. They are always constrained, forced, or even coerced into making
decisions or claims in society. There are multiple forms of determinism, some
argue that individuals are constrained by hidden structures or historical
processes, economic life. Some determinists believe individuals to be
constrained by national traditions or even supernatural. Some determinists
believe that we are determined by our subconscious or genetic inheritance.
Historical Approach
The historical approach in politics can have two
engagements: that the present laws which dictate politics arrive from an
analysis of historical events for example the historical materialism process
theorized by Marx and Hegel. Second is an attempt the understand political
thought through history, an example for this would be George Sabine’s “A
history of political thought”. (Sabine G.H et al 1973) The historical political
theory stands for taking historical events into account. The historical
approach also helps in setting up a chronological of political events.
The best illustration of the historical approach is the work
of George H. Sabine who gave a very practical definition of political science.
(Sabine et. al,1973) He proposed that political science needs to be included in
every subject which is discussed by prominent political philosophers such as
Aristotle, Rousseau, or Plato. In their writings, we could find solutions to
the problems these philosophers have posed about the reality or validity of
political beliefs. Throughout history, political philosophers have pondered
issues such as the meaning of freedom, why men obey the government, the extent
of government activities, and the meaning of equality.
Significant changes occurred throughout each of these
periods in Europe's social and intellectual history. As Sabine would put it,
great political ideas are “hidden” in the “interstices of political and social
crises.” They are generated not by crises in and of themselves, but by the
reaction intellectuals have to them. To fully appreciate political theory, it
is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the period, region, and
circumstances in which it arose.
The political philosopher may not actively engage in his
day's politics, but he is influenced by it, and he attempts fiercely to
influence it in his own time. According to Sabine, political theories “have a
dual purpose” in that they influence ideas that become causes and serve as
causal events in historical settings while also belonging to the abstract
domain of thought. It's also crucial to understand if a political ideology is
accurate or incorrect, sound or ludicrous, trustworthy or untrustworthy. This
brings up the question of values. As a result, we must make every effort to
include factual, causal, and valuational elements into our understanding of
political theory.
Historical Approach: An analysis
“History in the light of the best modern practice is to be
sharply distinguished from the antiquarianism or the collection of facts for
their own sake and should be defined rather as the study of problems or causes,
the interpretation of phenomena”. The historian's level of attention, of
course, cannot be foreseen ahead of time. It is determined by the individual as
much as the facts. However, it is necessary to use caution. Vigilance is
required since history contains misleading information. Accurately recording
facts and events are not always feasible. This isn't a fabricated charge.
Alan Ball states “past evidence does leave–alarming gaps,
and political history is often simply a record of great men and great events,
rather than a comprehensive account of total political activity.” (Ball et al,
2000) Few historians give historical events and facts a broad and liberal
interpretation. They have a warped vision of reality due to their narrow
perspective. Political science could not have a more strong and secure
foundation.
Sir Ivor Jennings is a well-known British constitutional
specialist, and his interpretations of several aspects of the British
Constitution are still considered trustworthy. His perspective on history is
singular. His research was aided by the depth of his analysis, the breadth of
his vision, and the objectivity with which he treated his subjects, and
students of politics still remember him. (Jennings I, 1959) Based on historical
documents, Jennings has compiled a detailed description of the British Prime
Minister, Parliament, and other government ministries. Robert Mackenzie
(Mackenzie, R.T, 1955) researched the party system, while Mackintosh
investigated the workings of England's cabinet system.
Empirical Approach or Empiricism
The history of empirical approach can be traced back to
Aristotle (384-22 BCE) who attempted to classify constitutions and to
Machiavelli (1469-1527 CE) who gave a realistic account of statecraft in The
Prince. Even John Rawls (1921-2002) also used empirical method for theorizing
at his principles of justice. In many ways such writings form the fundamental
basis of what we today read as comparative government and politics, and gave
rise to a principally institutional approach to the subject. Empirical approach
is the doctrine which believes that all the hypothesis and theories should be
tested by a practical process of observation and experiment. This approach out
rightly rejects theories that make value judgements as having the status of
knowledge.
Thus, empirical approach forms the basis for the later on
rise of other pragmatic approaches like positivism and behaviourism. Under the
influence of positivism, political theorists marched in the lights of gaining
scientific understanding about the political processes based on principles that
could be objectively confirmed and proven. As a result, they strove to develop
a natural science of society, and philosophy was reduced to a simple branch of
science in the process. Such a view of theory also presented the function of the
theorist as that of a detached spectator, devoid of any loyalties and ideals.
The golden years of this approach were in the early twentieth century, whereby
it reached greater heights, and has subsequently been come under attack.
Stringent empiricism has been criticized on the ground that it tends to produce
a simplistic model of science that has been badly dented by the advances in
Philosophy of Science. The empirical approach has significantly enhanced our
knowledge of the theoretical foundations of political science, is now being
utilized for better understanding of classical questions, including those which
are eventually value judgements. Science relies on evidence, similarly Political
Science also bank on empirical and logical statements. It is maintained that
value-free accurate observation and reasoning by different persons would lead
to similar conclusion; hence empirical and logical evidences may be verified.
Important Questions
1.Distinguish between Political Theory, Political
Philosophy and Political Science
2.Write a short note on the contemporary approaches to
Political Theory
3.Site the differences between Normative and Empirical
Approaches.
Read More
1.B.A Political Science 1st Lesson Important Notes
2. B.A Political Science 3rd Lesson Important Notes
0 Comments
If you any doubts, Please let me know