Lesson 3 Equality of Opportunity and Equality of Outcome
In social contexts, equality means the status of a society
in which all the people of that society have equal rights or status. For social
equality, 'equal rights before the law' is a minimum requirement under which
security, voting rights, freedom of speech, freedom to gather, property rights,
equal access to social goods and services etc. Apart from this, equal opportunity
and equal responsibility also comes under it.
Meaning of Equality
The belief of equality is a major assumption of a
self-governing society. Equality does not entail complete equality. Equality
originates from aequalis, aequus and aequalitas. These are all old French or
Latin words. These French/Latin words mean even, level and equal. In general
term, equality means full equality of treatment and reward for all. It is
needed as natural equality.
Many theoretical and intellectual grounds have also been
presented for this. In other words, equality means that all people in the
society should have equal status and everyone should get equal prvillages. But
this is not completely real because not all people are equal. Man has been made
equal by nature. Depending on anatomy, form, color, strength, intelligence, the
variation found in individuals is found. Due to the fundamental distinctions
given by nature, complete equality cannot be brought in a person.
The real meaning of equality is that all people should get
equal opportunity for their development and should not be differentiated on the
basis of caste, birth, religion, sex, class, property race.
One should not be bound in the development of a person by
qualification. Here equality has three Basic elements:
a) Absence of special privileges in society.
b) Presence of adequate and equal opportunities for
development of all.
c) Equal satisfaction of basic needs of all.
According to Laski, the most influential positive liberal
thinker, set down the following conditions forequality:
1. End of special privileges in society
2. Adequate opportunities to all for developing the full
potential of their personalities.
3. Access to social benefits for all with no restrictions on
any ground like family position or wealth, heredity etc.
4. Absence of economic and social exploitation.
Characteristics of Equality:
·
Equality does not stand for absolute equality. It accepts the presence of some
natural dissimilarities.
·
Equality stands for absence of all unnatural manmade inequalities and specially
privileged classes in the society.
·
Equality assumes the grant and guarantee of equal rights and freedoms to all
the people.
·
Equality infers the system of equal and adequate opportunities for all the
people in society.
Equality accepts the principle of protective discrimination
for helping the weaker sections of society.
Read More:- B.A. Pol Sci Hons. 2nd Semester Notes
Development of Equality
Greek Philosophy
The problem of equality and inequality has figured in
political thought since earliest times.We have two different tradition
(a)Inequality which was supported by Plato and Aristotal, (b) Equality which
was supported by Pericle, Sophists, Antiphon and Stoics. Aristotle discovered
that 'inequality' was a cause of rebellionin many a state. He defined justice
as treating equals equally and unequals unequally.
The Medieval Period
During the medieval period Christianity raised the voice for
equality but soon it got converted into equality before God. During this period
feudalism emerged in europe and unequal rules of aristocracy developed. In fact
feudalism was emerged a combination of legal and military customs in medieval
Europe that flourished between 9th and 15th century broadly defined it was way of
structuring society around relationship derived from the holding of land in
exchange for service and labour.
The Renaissance
The Renaissance and the reformation played an important part
in weakening and shaking the existing social and political system. Beside this
the Renaissance influenced Gender inequalities in term of marriage, wealth,
ownership and freedom of expression. The emerging middle class challenged the
legal, social, and political privileged of the feudal order. In European
history the middle class played the important role as an agent of change to
transform society.
Nineteenth Century and twentieth Century
A demand for socio-economic equality from newly working
class. As result of the industrial revolution economic disparities has
increased and the demand for economic equality and justice came from quarters.
In fact the industrial and economic development of the industrial revolution
bought significant social changes. Industrialisation resulted in an increase
population phenomenon urban growing number of people move to urban centre in
search of employment.
But the succession of capitalism has increased the scope of
inequality even further. Initially Utopian socialistsand later Angels and Marx
raised the demand for economic equality. Subsequently, political equality was
also demanded along with the demand for economic equality.
Types of Equality
1. Natural Equality
Though human differ in respect of their physical features,
psychological traits, mental abilities and capacities, all humans are to be
treated as equal humans. All are to be considered to avail all human rights and
freedoms.
2. Social Equality
Social equality is referred as equal rights and
opportunities for development for all classes of people without any
discrimination such as civil rights, freedom of speech, property rights, and
equal access to social goods and services. Social equality requires the absence
of legally enforced social class or caste boundaries and the absence of
discrimination motivated by an inalienable part of a person's identity.
Specifically, Social equality stands for:
a) Absence of special privileges for any class or caste or
religions group or an ethnic group.
b) Prohibition of discrimination against any one on the
basis of caste, colour, creed, religion, sex and place of birth.
c) Free access to public places for all the people, i.e. no
social segregation.
d) Equality of opportunity for all people. It however
accepts the concept of protective discrimination in favour of all weaker
sections of society.
3. Political Equality
It is referred as equal opportunities for participation of
all in the political process. This involves the concept of grant of equal
political rights for all the citizens with some uniform qualifications for
everyone. All citizens must possess similar political rights, they should have
similar voice in the working of the government and they should have equal
opportunities to actively participate in the political life and affairs of the
country.
The same provision has been made in England, U.S.S.R.,
U.S.A., France and many other countries.
4. Economic Equality
Economic equality does not indicate that equal treatment or
equal reward or equal wages for all. It denotes to fair and adequate opportunities
to all for work and for earning of their livelihoods. It also means that
primary needs of all should be fulfilled before the special needs of few are
gratified.
5. Legal Equality
Legal Equality is defined as equality before law, equal
subjection of all to the same legal code and equal opportunity for all to
secure legal protection of their rights and freedom. Equality before the law is
the principle that each independent being must be treated equally by the law
and that all are subject to the same laws of justice.
Formal Equality
Nowadays a term is frequently used and it is formal
equality. The political scientists do not especially use this term but it is
manifest from their analysis that the idea of formal equality is quite fresh in
their minds. It is believed that formal equality is legal equality.
As a legal member of the legal association every person has
certain claims to equality. There are two very important forms of legal or
formal equality. One is equality before law and equal protection of law.
t has been pointed out by Heywood that the formal equality
is basically negative because the state authority takes special care in regard
to the distribution of opportunities. The objective shall always be not to
allow awarding special privileges to few persons.
Naturally to attain this goal the state must impose
restriction in one form or other upon the distributing machinery or the state
must take policy to that extent.
Read More:- B.A. Pol Sci Hons. 2nd Semester Notes
Equality of opportunity
The rational behind this political ideal is that society is
uneven, with privileges, standing and potential for success being heavily
influenced by many different factors predetermined by birth. The political
ideal places an individual in any given rung of social hierarchy as a result of
their background. Equality of opportunity calls on a ‘fairness of outcome’ in
society. The notion of equality of opportunity follows from the idea of formal
equality and can be traced even in the writings of Plato who propose
educational system that offers all children equal chance to realize their talents
and social positions based upon merit and efforts.
According to Rawls formal equality of opportunity is not
enough. It is important to incorporate intelligence and social position as part
of the distributive criteria. The notion of Equality of opportunity does not
compensate inequalities that arise due to factors that are arbitrary from moral
point of view. Social economic circumstances and special talents of individuals
are arbitrary from the moral point of view because they are the result of brute
luck. John Rawls’ second principle allows social and economic inequalities if
they provide greatest benefits to the least advantaged member of the society
and offices and position remain open to all under fair equality of opportunity.
Equality of Resources Luck Egalitarians
Luck egalitarian theory is based around the notion that
individual is responsible for his choice but not for his unchosen
circumstances. “People’s fates are determined by their choices and their
circumstances and this must remain argue luck egalitarians a fundamental
insight when considering what constitute a just distribution. Ronald Dworkin,
Richard Arneson, G.A. Cohen, Philippe V. Parjisare the thinkers who endorse the
position termed as Luck Egalitarians by Elizabeth Anderson.
Ronald Dworkin’s influential account of luck egalitarianism
is based on equality of resources. In Sovereign Virtue Dworkin writes, “Equal
concern is the sovereign virtue of political community—without it government is
only tyranny –and when a nation’s wealth is very unequally distributed, as the
wealth of even very prosperous nation now is, then its equal concern is suspect.
The principle of equal importance requires government to
formulate laws and policies that are insensitive to the special particulars of
individual. This means being insensitive to their economic background, gender,
race and particular set of skill. The second principle of special
responsibility requires government to make laws and policies as far as possible
sensitive to the choices that people willingly make.
Moreover the benefits of equal resources may differ for
different individuals. Amartya Sen imagines two persons A and B. Person A as a
cripple gets half the utility that the pleasure Inthe real world income tax is
a devise that is used to neutralize the effects of differential talents and
handicaps.
Equality of Welfare
To assess the merit of laws or policies Utilitarian’s adopt
a welfarist metric and the right policy is that which promotes the greatest
happiness of the greatest number. Equality of welfare requires that those whose
welfare is restricted may receive extra resources so that the amount of welfare
can be equalized but fails to accommodate the principle of special
responsibility towards oneself for example if a person is born with a disease
or handicap he/she may have less welfare due to factors which are not in his
control but what about those who need extra resources due to expensive way of
life and taste and need extra Focus on resources to achieve the same level of
welfare.
Equality is complex
Walzer argues for complex equality, the idea is different
goods belong to different distributive spheres and each has its own
distributive principles. For example unequal distribution of money is
permissible if that inequality is the result of some fair mechanism, which is
people’s ability to make money and as long as money inequality does not
influence the distribution of goods belonging to other spheres for example
education or health.
According to the above mentioned discussion of various
positions equality of opportunity seeks to correct for all unchosen
disadvantages natural as well as social and difference of Achievement---
Equality of Welfare emphasizes on achievement, meaning the final satisfaction
that people derive from different state of affairs
Means of achievement-- Rawls and Dworkin’s principle of
primary goods and equality of resources represents shift towards means to
achieve various state of affairs. Freedom to achieve---Amartya Sen’s capability
approach emphasize freedom to achieve desired state of affairs. Egalitarian
Liberals emphasizes that liberty and equality are compatible political values.
In society for just division of benefits and burdens of social cooperation both
these values should be given due consideration.
Equality of Opportunity vs. Equality of outcome
·
Equality of opportunity is concerned principally with initial conditions and
the removal of obstacles that stay in the way of personal development; equality
of outcome is concerned with end results.
· The
equality of outcome whether in its moderate or radical sense usually argue that
it is the most vital form of equality because equal legal and civil rights are
of little benefit to citizen who do not possess secure jobs.
·
Equality of outcome is also a prerequisite for securing individual liberty. As
far as individualis concerned a certain level of material prosperity is
essential if people are to lead worthwhile and fulfilled lives.
·
Equality of outcome can be achieved by massive interference because people are different
in their abilities and aspirations. Talent is penalized and equal result is
achieved by process of leveling downwards.
· In a
society mechanism to achieve equal outcome are filled with moral as well as
practical problems. To achieve equality of Outcome State has to employ
different ways to compel the transfer of resources.
Marxist Theory of Equality
Like his other political concepts, equality is also a part
of his entire political philosophy which is primarily linked with the unmasking
the real nature of capitalist system, its abolition and emancipation of working
class.
Even the inequalities were institutionalised by the
capitalists. Theoretically the bourgeois scholars and political scientists
propagate for equality and strongly argue for formal or legal equality. Even
the bourgeois constitutions (constitutions framed by the bourgeois scholars to
meet the needs of a particular class) pontifically announce the inclusions of
rights, liberties and equalities as parts of the constitution and also make
provision for their protection.
Two Principles of Equality
A serious analysis of Marxist thought reveals that Marx had
two types of equality in his mind. The two principles of equality are—”From
each according to his abilities, to each according to the amount of work
performed”.
In the first stage of the post-revolutionary society, Marx
claimed, this objective or principle could be achieved. Marxists did not treat
this stage as the stage of just equality. It was apprehended that due to
differences in ability and talent there might appear differences among men in
many respects.
here is another principle delineated by Marxists: “From each
according to his abilities, to each according to his needs”. Marxists
(including Lenin) stressed this principle and held that only in a communist
society this principle could be achieved.
Affirmative actions
Affirmative action is the strategy to errand members of a
disadvantaged group who currently suffer or historically have suffered from
discrimination within a culture. Often, these people are deprived for
historical reasons, such as oppression or bondage. The notion of
"affirmative action" was first used in the United States in 1961,
which included a provision that government contractors "take affirmative
action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during
employment, without regard to their race, creed, colour, or national
origin."
Affirmative action in India
Reverse Discrimination: In the system of Affirmative
action, the Majority of populace feel omitted and discriminated against as the
allocation of jobs and positions in various fields is based on a quota system
or reservations. In India, the government continues to reinforce reservations,
and increases the quotas to gain vote bank, and the majority feel acutely side[1]lined. The system of
reservation was meant to last for a decade or so, but it has become so
established in the contemporary times, that the majority are naturally in
disdain of it. The heated issue of Patidar Reservation Agitation in India is
best example of reverse discrimination in India. Patels, as a prosperous caste
in India are also highlighting themselves as 'backward classes'.
Brain Drain: It is major outcome of identity-based
politics in India. Due to reservations, and quota based systems, the public
feels challenged, destabilised and even rejected as selections in jobs and
education are made on the criterion of Caste than Merit. Hence, the
intellectuals are forced to work abroad and the phenomenon of Brain Drain keeps
draining India of its think tanks, learned scholars and intellectuals.
Against Constitution: If the constitution struggles
for an democratic society with equal rights for everyone irrespective of caste,
colour and creed, then the case of preferential treatment as evidenced in the
policies of Affirmative Action may/will attack as a double standard. Because of
this fact, in many countries Affirmative Action on the basis of race is deemed
prohibited but in India such is not the case.
Creamy layer: It has been observed that there are
economic divisions even in the impoverished classes such as OBCs. Mostly the
well-off sections of the same community tend to seize the reservations while
the poor remain poor and incapable to access the welfare schemes meant to
rehabilitate them. In order to arrest such a practice, the concept of creamy
layer was introduced in India according to which the upper and middle sections
of OBCs are not eligible for reservations allowing the poor OBCs access to
government's welfare programs. In this system, the sections belonging to low
castes that have progressed in educational and job circles will not be
entertained as marginalised and can compete with the majority without the
helping hand of the reservations.
There are critics who stated that affirmative actions are
not good practices. Challengers of affirmative action such as George Sher
consider that affirmative action diminishes the accomplishments of people who
are chosen based on the social group to which they belong rather than their
qualifications, thus rendering affirmative action counterproductive.
But affirmative action is intended to enhance the life of
deprived people. Affirmative action is a set of measures approved by
governments and public and private institutions such as political parties,
educational establishments, corporations and companies to address a history of
systemic discrimination and exclusion of particular social groups or to
encourage the efforts of particular social groups in the interests of certain
development goals. Affirmative action is expected to improve development indicators
by reducing inequalities and facilitating the contribution of particular social
groups to development.
B.A. Political Science Notes, Sol DU BA Study Notes, BA Study Notes, ignou ba notes
Read More:- B.A. Pol Sci Hons. 2nd Semester Notes
0 Comments
If you any doubts, Please let me know